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Regional income inequality in the United States 1913-2003
par SOMMEILLER Estelle
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2006
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Université Lumière Lyon 2
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1. Income Inequality: Meaning and Measurement
1.1.1. How is Income Defined?
1.1.2. Income Recipients: Who is to Count?
1.1.3. Income Inequality Measures
1.2. A Double-Contradiction Rekindles the Debate
1.3. The Analyses of Convergence
1.4. Organizational Structure
Chapter 2 LITERATURE SURVEY: THE NEED FOR DISPERSION INDICATORS
2.1. On Income Inequality: Inverted-U or Sinusoidal Curve?
2.1.1. Kuznets and the Natural Decrease of Income Inequality
2.1.2. Piketty: the Accidental Pattern of Income Inequality
2.2. On Regional Convergence: Two Disciplines at Stake
2.2.1. Barro and Sala-i-Martin Advocate β-Convergence Barro and Sala-i-Martin (1995, p. 383) distinguish two definitions of convergence: β-convergence and σ-convergence. “In one view (…), convergence applies if a poor economy tends to grow faster than a rich one, so that the poor country tends to catch up with the rich one in terms of the level of per capita income or product. This property corresponds to our concept of β convergence. (This phenomenon is sometimes described as “regression toward the mean”.) The second concept (…) concerns cross-sectional dispersion. In this context, convergence occurs if the dispersion _measured, for example, by the standard deviation of the logarithm of per capita income or product across a group of countries or regions_ declines over time. We call this process σ convergence.”
2.2.2. The Geographers Advocate Regional Polarization
2.3. The Present Contribution
2.3.1. A New Data Set Relates to the Literature
2.3.2. The New Data Set is Used for Convergence Analyses
Chapter 3 DATA AND METHODOLOGY
3.1. Data: the IRS Publications Statistics of Income
3.2. Methodology: Pareto Estimation of Income Levels in Upper Decile
3.2.1. 17 Fractiles to be Estimated
3.2.2. Fractiles are Estimated by the Pareto Interpolation Method
3.3. The Main Adjustments
3.3.1. Excluding Capital Gains
3.3.2. Net Income and Adjusted Gross Income (from 1944 on)
3.3.3. Households versus Tax Units
3.4. 51 Ratios of Top Incomes over State Mean: Within-State Inequality
3.5. 51 Ratios of Top Incomes over U.S. Mean: Between-State Inequality
Chapter 4 CROSS-SECTIONAL AND TREND-OVER-TIME ANALYSES
4.1. Income Levels over Time
4.1.1. West
4.1.2. Midwest
4.1.3. South
4.1.4. Northeast
4.2. Within-State Inequality (ytop i,t / ybar i,t)
4.2.1. Maps
4.2.2. Trend over Time
4.3. Inter-State Inequality (ytop i,t / ybar US,t)
4.3.1. Animated Mapping
4.3.2. Trend over Time
Chapter 5 CONVERGENCE 1: INCOME INEQUALITY AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
5.1. Kuznets-Type Analysis Based on the Ranking of States
5.1.1. Persistence of Income Differentials Among States over Time
5.1.2. The High-Income States Display the Widest Income Gaps
5.1.3. The Relation Low Income - Fast Growth Hold in the Long-Run
5.2. The β Convergence and Inequality Regressions
5.2.1. β Convergence: Growth and Initial Income Level
5.2.2. β Convergence Within the Top Decile
5.2.3. Inequality Regressions
5.2.4. Spatial Auto-Correlation
5.3. The σ Convergence
5.3.1. Average Income and Top Percentile Income Decline in Dispersion
5.3.2. Incomes of Top 90-95 and 95-99 Percent Record Increasing Dispersion
Chapter 6 CONVERGENCE 2: THE FULL DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME
6.1. The Lorenz Curve and the Gini Coefficient
6.1.1. General Considerations
6.1.2. The Case of Crossing Lorenz Curves
6.2. The Assumption of Pareto Distributions
6.2.1. The Functional Form of the Lorenz Curve
6.2.2. The Gini Coefficient in the Case of the Pareto Distribution
6.3. Applied to the Panel Data of the United States, 1965-2003
6.3.1. Lorenz Curves Skewed to the Right
6.3.2. Inequality Regressions on Gini Coefficients
6.3.3. The Share of Median Income in Total Income, L90/10, and L75/25
Chapter 7 CONCLUSION
7.1. Summary
7.2. Suggestions for Future Research
APPENDIX
Appendix 1 : DATA SOURCES
A.1.1. Internal Revenue Service and Statistics of Income
A.1.2. Bureau of Economic Analysis and State Personal Income
A.1.3. Bureau of the Census and Household Numbers
A.1.4. Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis
Appendix 2 : FOR THE DATA SET TO BE HOMOGENEOUS
A.2.1. Alaska, Hawaii, D.C., and Other Areas
A.2.2. Classes Grouped for Disclosure Purposes, 1917-1937
Appendix 3 NOTES ABOUT THE IRS TABLES
Appendix 4 : GROWTH RATES AND WAGES
A.4.1. Composition of Income in IRS Tables
A.4.2. Initial Wage Levels versus Growth Rates
REFERENCES
Data Tables INCOME LEVELS OF EACH FRACTILE, 2003 DOLLARS